National incident based reporting system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

National incident based reporting system - Essay Example This paper identifies the current challenges of crime reporting as the lack of harmonization on the usage of crime reporting programs used in various states in U.S. It is important to note that some cities have failed to incorporate NIBRS into their crime prevention and detection system. It also addresses the technological opportunity presented by NIBRS in crime reporting technology and its advantages over the UCR. The paper makes some basic recommendation for effective crime reporting system. First, it recommend the need to involve the community and ordinary citizens in the system since they are the one affected by crime and it might be more effective if they know exactly the significance of correctly reporting a crime incident. Secondly, it calls for the crime reporting system to be more alert so as to adapt to the changing society so as to capture immerging new forms of crimes in our society. A crime is an act that violates a political or moral rule. Presently, an act that was considered a crime some years back might no longer be a crime in today's society. It is also true that what a certain community considers to be an antisocial act might mean nothing to another community. Statistical crime rate will directly be affected as culture and political environment changes. This in turn determines the allocation of resources for the enforcement of such laws and also influences public opinion. Public perception of a crime is affected if there are changes in the way the crime data are collected. (Hart, 1961) Law enforcing agencies before used to employ awkward way of crime reporting to know whether crime is increasing or not such as counting the number of people in the people and this made crime data analysis very difficult. Until early 18th century, the data collection on crime incidences was insignificant. (Blythe, 1992) The governments of all nations all over the world have been looking forward to minimizing the occurrence of crime in the society. The incidences of crimes are usually identified by location, gender, nature and race by these crime reporting programs. This has really helped the government in allocating resources by allocating more resources in the areas more prone to crimes to reduce them. The crime incidences reporting have helped the Federal state to plan and redirect resources in fighting crimes since the UCR began its operations according to the data collected by USA government. According to the FBI (2006), there is an overall reduction in crime incidences ranging from violent to simple assaults for the past ten years. Statement of the problem Many crimes that happen every day goes unreported in the UCR crime reporting program. NIBRS in the other hand, as an improvement of UCR, has its own limitations. One, there is no enough resources needed to capture all the crime incidences. This in turn has lead to its failure in giving a proper picture of crime to the law enforcement agencies for it to strategies effective ways of fighting crimes. This has been contributed by failure of some cities to introduce the NIBRS in their systems and lack of harmonization in crime prevention system strategies and partnership between cities. This paper is an effort to address

Busines economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Busines economics - Essay Example Primarily among these tool is the GDP. It refers to the net market value of the goods and services provided by a country. It can also be used to assess the standard of living of citizens in that country and can be used to gauge the demand and the buying capacity of individuals during that financial year. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the UK shrunk 0.60% during the latter half of the financial year in 2010. It has been calculated that United Kingdom’s average quarterly growth rate was 0.59% which climbed the charts steadily to 5.30% and also witnessed a record low of -2.5%. (United Kingdom GDP Growth Rate, 2011) The UK as a robust economy has its GDP usually boosted by the strong performance of the banking and insurance services. The manufacturing industry meanwhile faced a recession and the key to overcoming this problem lies in more government involvement while at the same time continuing its social welfare initiatives. One of the most current statistics that have been obtained indicated the following Country Interest Rate Growth Rate Inflation Rate Jobless rate Government Budget Exchange Rate UK 0.50% -0.60% 4.00% 8.00% -11.40% 1.62 (United Kingdom GDP Growth Rate, 2011) However when compared to 2009 there has however been a slight improvement of 1.5% GDP in the last quarter of 2010. The manufacturing experienced a slight boost in the latter half of 2010 climbing by 1.1% and the utility production also grew by 4.6%. The mining sector experienced a slight meltdown falling by 4.5%. The construction industry was also severely hit as several major construction projects were put on hold due the banking crisis that arose in 2009-2010. It fell by 2.5 %. Other sectors that experienced a drop were the business services and the transport sector at 1.1% and 1.4% respectively. (United Kingdom GDP Growth Rate, 2011) The German economy on the other hand fared better compared to its counterpart. The GDP increased by 0.40% in the latter half of 2010 compared to 2009. It also had its share of ups and downs with its average GDP growth at 0.29%. This reached a peak of 2.30% in June 2010 and a nadir of 3.50% in March 2009. (Germany GDP Growth Rate, 2011) Export forms the backbone of German economy and accounts for almost one third of its income. Germany has performed better than UK during this taxing period as shown by the market indicators and its strong commitment in engaging to closer European cooperation between member countries in both economic and commercial policies is reaping benefits. Country Interest Rate Growth Rate Inflation Rate Jobless rate Government Budget Exchange Rate UK 1.00% 0.40% 2.00% 7.40% -3.00% 1.42 (Germany GDP Growth Rate, 2011) Comparing both the Macroeconomic performance of UK with its European counterparts over the past ten years, one finds that its performance of attaining an annual GDP growth of 2.3% places it third behind US and Canada. However rising levels of both private sector debt and public sector debt ha ve held back the government in providing sufficient fiscal stimulus to the manufacturing and industrial sector. Trade, an area where Germany has made rapid progress also has declined in the context of the UK market. (BIS Economic Paper No.9, 2010) Business investment has also taken a backseat in UK. Post 2000, survey estimates indicate that UK is ranked behind

The Exposed Problems Of Sexism In The Media Media Essay

The Exposed Problems Of Sexism In The Media Media Essay For many years now the media we are exposed to every day has been filled with gender inequality (sexism) even though we might not always notice it. Gender inequality is a problem we as humans have been facing for quite a few years now and more often than not the media has been part of the problem and not the solution. Problem statement: Does the media promote sexism and outdate views of male/female behaviour? What is media sexism? The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology defines sexism as being the unfair discrimination on the basis of sex. This kind of discrimination tends to operate in favour of men and against women; however the obverse is not entirely unheard of. From this we can assume that the term media sexism refers to discrimination on the basis of gender that we perceive from day to day in the media. As easy as the term may seem to be to grasp, its a much more abstract term in the way that we arent always aware of the sexism that takes place in the media. For example, the percentage of newsreaders covering important news stories that are male dominates the amount of female newsreaders covering important news stories. This is quite subtle and most people dont notice this, whereas the amount of female sex workers seen in the news is much more than the amount of male sex workers seen in the news. Sexism of any kind, including media sexism can occur on many different levels and range from being covert to being outright blatant. Yes the media promotes sexism and sexist behaviour From my point of view, yes, media does promote sexism and sexist behaviour. I say it does promote sexism because women, or to be more specific womens bodies and specific women body parts are used to advertise new products. How many adverts have we seen in magazines where new gadgets are being advertised with half naked woman holding it? Cars, TV, graphics card, cell phone, laptop, etc, are all being promoted and it is being associated with women and their body. The adverts on TV are mostly being advertised by women. And if look at these commercials most of them the women have nothing to do with the product that is being advertised, one of the example is the advert for fruit juice where woman were being splashed with different fruit and fruit juice. If we also look at the computer games and their characters we can clearly that its promoting sexism. As they make the women characters look very attractive and expose their bodies. This is not the only place where media promotes sexism, if have we look at the movies and series, we can see that the men are the ones playing the important roles in the movie and women are there just as the hot sex icon, we can take Transformers for example, where Megan Fox who is the one of the main characters in Transformers plays a sex icon in the movie. If we remember when the Transformers 1 and 2 came out many men went with their friends to cinemas to watch the movie not only for its great action and effects but went to go watch it to see Megan Fox. I can remember many of my friends talking of going to watch it just to see her. This clearly shows that women, in this case Megan Fox, are used to advertise the movie so that it can sell better. We can clearly see that media does promote sexism after we have given and discussed different fields of media where media sexism is being used. This is not good as there are many disadvantages from advertising women in such a way. Women are being used as objects. This has influence on mens mind, as it changes the way they view women and how they treat women in general. No The media does not promote sexism and sexist behaviour For many years the media has been dominated by male presenters, reporters, writers etc. Women were seen as inferior to men and their voices were not heard in the media. However, this has now come to pass According to the Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP), a global survey that is taken every five years, in 2005, 57% of all television news presenters were female and throughout the world women are more frequently becoming strongly represented in newsrooms. These figures also remained stable during the 2010 survey. It showed that while men were more likely to report domestic news stories (70%), women were much more likely to report international news (61%). Also worth mentioning is that 83% of news stories focusing on women were also presented by female journalists. Their findings from 1995-2010 for reporting and presenting the news read as following: 1995 2000 2005 2010 %Men %Women %Men %Women %Men %Women %Men %Stories presented on TV and Radio 51 49 49 51 53 47 49 As can be seen from the above table taken from the GMMP 2010, the percentage of males and females presenting news stories on television and radio have been rather stable and more importantly, equal for the last 20 years. This is a good example of how gender inequality and stereotypes are starting to dissipate from the media we are exposed to in everyday life. This change was brought about thanks to various different approaches to the issue of gender equality in the media that include, but are not limited to: Bringing gender balance to the institution of media; Creating alternative media for women to tell their stories and to let their voice be heard; Empowering and hiring female journalists; These approaches arent mutually exclusive. They all play important roles in gender equality in the media today as well as the fair portrayal of females in the media. In conclusion, males and females are slowly but surely starting to enter a balance when it comes to equality in the media. The days of gender stereotypes are drawing to a close and we welcome female journalists and newsreaders into the previously male dominated field where they prove themselves to be equals to their male counterparts. How the media portrays men and women and the effects thereof Through sexism in the media, stereotypes of how men and women should act and the roles they should adhere to are developed. The media has the power to influence the masses and by communicating sexist ideas the media is creating stereotypes by which they expect the public to conform to. Adverting campaigns such as the Bar One Man launched by Bar One and Windhoeks Always Keep it Real advertising campaigns are typical examples of the media dictating how men should act. Women used for advertising and television programmes are most times abnormally thin and skinny. Women viewing this believe that this is the norm and are driven to unhealthy diets and eating disorders in order to obtain what the media has portrayed as the ideal body. Young girls and women can suffer from anorexia and bulimia while trying to conform to what the media has portrayed as the perfect body size. Men are portrayed as being very strong, masculine and muscular. Men spend hours at the gym trying to obtain what has been presented to them as the perfect body and sometimes turn to supplement such as steroids for help which damage ones health. As a result of not achieving the perfect body, people can suffer from anxiety, depression and a range of inner conflicting emotions. Men and women are glamorised and portrayed as completely flawless in the media, this prompts everyday people to waste large amounts of money on cosmetics so that they may conform to this flawless image. Women spend money on expensive make-up, perfumes, clothes, jewellery and accessories while men are prompted to buy colognes, after-shaves and other costly cosmetic products in order to make themselves look appealing to the opposite sex. Some people would go as far as to pay to have cosmetic surgery done to improve their bodies. In the media women are presented as sex objects to be used by men. This leads to decay in the self esteem of women as they begin to believe that the only way to get attention from men is to present themselves as sex objects. This also has a negative impact on men as they loose respect for women and are led to believe that there are many beautiful women in the world that are easy and willing sex partners. In the media men are often seen doing something stupid or potentially dangerous to gain the attention and approval of a woman. This is seen in a lot of First for Women advertisements on the television and in magazines. This encourages men to act recklessly to get a womans attention. The way the media portrays men and women is not an accurate representation of reality, but a false portrayal of how the media expects men and women to be. The way media portrays men and women creates an extremely high expectation of reality. People become obsessive about meeting that expectation and damage their health and emotions in the process. Men and women face disappointment when the opposite sex does not live up to the high expectation the media has created of them. Using sexism to help promote or sell products does not always work in the favour of the companies advertising. Sexist advertisements that appear in the media can often annoy and enrage the gender that is being exploited or ridiculed in order to promote the product. This causes negative feelings and emotions towards that advertisement. By using sexism in advertising a company can gain the attention of its audience but can also leave people feeling angered and opposed to buying that specific product. Group opinion After discussing the topic and considering all the information we gathered throughout this assignment we as a group decided that the media definitely promotes sexism and sexist behaviour particularly in favour of males. The female body is often being exploited to sell products; females are less frequently used to present important news and less than 30% of journalists covering important stories worldwide are female (GMMP, 2011). Hopefully in coming years this will become a thing of the past, but for the time being media sexism is a very real problem that we face. In conclusion It would appear that the media is still representing females as being inferior to males or at least to a certain degree. Despite this however, females are starting to fight back and are proving to be worthy equals to their male counterparts. Organisations such as the GMMP are trying to ensure gender equality in the media and are slowly, but surely achieving their goal. This is a mindset that might take many years to get out of, but it is a necessary change that will have to take place if we are to truly progress as a species. In our opinion, males and females are equal and it should be portrayed that way in the media and in any walks of life.

Hand Guns :: essays research papers

I. Introduction It is estimated that in 1994, 39,720 individuals died from firearm related injuries in the United States . This figure is very alarming, especially when one considers this number not as a statistic, but 39,720 human beings. The issue that will be addressed is one that brings with it great controversy. Does our right to own guns infringe upon the rights of others to live? Would it be a greater injustice to ban the right to own guns thus saving lives? Would this action decrease pain and increase pleasure for the majority? I ask that an open mind be kept throughout this presentation, for guns impact two basic rights provided by the Constitution. The first can be found in these words at the end of the introduction: ".in order to promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity" . The next can be found in the Second Amendment: ".the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed" . These two rights clearly belong to all citizens, but now one must question: What about the 39,720 individuals who were killed by guns in 1994. Were their rights upheld, or has a great injustice been committed? Whenever there is an issue which generates great controversy, there are always at least two sides or views which must be considered. There are many degrees of either freedom or control which individuals believe, but they fall into either pro gun control or against gun control. Those who are against restrictions on gun control are represented by the NRA (National Rifle Association). The NRA states the Second Amendment as ".the ultimate civil liberty- the right to defend one's own life- without which there are no rights". The NRA strongly defends any and all gun rights, for they see any gun restriction as the beginning of civilian disarmament. Those who are for gun control and regulations also have varying degrees of beliefs, but they all believe that more regulations are in order. Some want the abolition of virtually all guns, while others simply want tougher regulations on applicants desiring a gun. This side also has many organizations which work to represent their beliefs, one of which is HCI (Handgun Control Incorporated). The right to own guns is defended by many for some of the following reasons. The right to own a firearm provides the public with power.

Concept of Sustainble Development Essay

The tradition concept of development has for a considerable period of time been driven by economic considerations. Exploitation of natural resources which leads to environmental degradation motivated by targets of maximum profits has been the norm and little regard has been granted to the side effects of development initiatives. Gradual escalation of awareness and realisation of the range as well as the magnitude of environmental effects of development initiatives led to worldwide discussions on the way forward. Consequently, the concept sustainable development was conceived. However, this concept is perceived to be oxymoron by environmentalists, in other terms it is viewed as a combination of two contradicting terminologies. In view of the above, this essay endeavours to explain with relevant specific examples the reason why environmentalists consider the concept sustainable development as an oxymoron. In order to establish a good argument, two literature definitions of sustainable development shall be given. This will be followed by an explanation why sustainable development is considered to be oxymoron and this shall be supported by examples. And only after then shall a conclusion be stressed. According to the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources (2007: V) sustainable development is defined as, â€Å"development that meets the needs and aspirations of the present generation without causing deterioration and without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations†. On the other hand Todaro and Smith (2003) asserted that sustainable development entails both intra-generational and inter-generational equity. These concepts project a requirement of the present generation to meet their needs and aspirations without destroying the ability of the future generations to come and meet their needs and aspirations. As earlier alluded to, the concept s ustainable development is a mixture of two words with distinct opposing interpretations. According to Arend and Eureta (2002) sustainability entails the maintenance of the extraordinary diversity of plants, animals and insects that exist on earth. The other term development is known as a multidimensional phenomenon which has several aspects namely; economic, social, political, cultural and environmental. It is imperative to acknowledge the fact that true development involves a record of progress in all the dimensions of the development process. Furthermore, it is also necessary to be cognisant of the point that the environment and global systems which includes development are a series of dynamic and interconnected processes changing and interacting overtime, (Todaro and smith, 2003). From the definitions provided above, it is apparent that the two expressions sustainability and development contradict each other. This is due to the point that sustainability emphasizes on maintaining diversity and productivity of natural resources overtime. On the contrary, natural resources fuel the process of development; therefore, development cannot be a reality without consuming natural resources. The global community is hungry for development as a result people are constantly improving their livelihoods and welfare so as to attain higher standards of living through many innovations such as technology which in turn negatively impact on the environment. The question which maybe asked here is â€Å"what forms the basis of livelihoods?† (ECZ, 2008). According to ECZ (2000), the environment is the cornerstone of our livelihoods because biological resources are the primary sources of economic development thus development is all about consuming natural resources. Besides development, population dynamics also exert pressure on natural resources. With a clear reflection that development is all about the utilisation of natural resources, how then can sustainability be transformed into actuality? This is the question asked by many environmental practioners. It is evident through many global development initiatives how planetary natural resources are being utilized in order to achieve desired development targets. The two terminologies sustainability and development can be compared to a saying that says â€Å"two cobras cannot stay in the same mountain one has to die or eventually leave the mountain†. Therefore, sustainability and development are two cobras staying in the same mountain. The implication according to environmentalists is that, if we are to achieve ultimate sustainability then development should be out of the picture, (Energy Regulation Board, 2007). In Zambia, development programmes are using environmental resources at an increasing rate. With a fast growing population, the drive to meet goals set out in national development strategies and in international conventions, most recently defined in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), has likewise accelerat ed. As an example to illustrate the contradiction between sustainability and development, urbanisation in Chipata district can be utilized. As by definition, urbanisation may also mean development of land into residential, commercial and industrial properties. Urbanisation in Chipata has resulted in a number of negative environmental impacts which have adversely affected the diversity of biological resources. Consequential environmental effects include deforestation which has provoked excessive vegetative removal of tree cover along streams and on hills around Chipata town. Furthermore, land degradation due to urbanization is also prevalent in Chipata and this has led to soil erosion, sand and earth mining and degradation of catchment areas of Lunkhwakwa and Lutembwe rivers, (ECZ, 2008). Chipata district has over 56,000 hectors of land under protection and most areas are threatened by encroachment and deforestation due to urbanisation. Urbanisation in Chipata can be considered as progress from a developmental perspective because more houses, shops and industries have been erected and this has advanced people’s liv elihoods in terms of increased housing facilities and employment opportunities. However, this contradicts with sustainability because there has been excessive destruction of forests on the hills of Chipata which has resulted in extreme soil erosion down the slope, (ECZ, 2008). With reference to the economic dimension of the development process, the construction and expansion of mining as well as manufacturing industries can be perceived as progress. This is due to the fact that the existence of operational industries attracts various benefits to the local people. Firstly, job opportunities are created for the local and this helps them sustain their lives by acquiring wages at the end of each month. Salaries obtained by people from employment give them the ability to command their basic needs such as food, shelter and clothes, (MoFNP, 2006). The mining industry has played a pivotal role in the development of the country. However, the availability of exposed, accessible and near surface mineral deposits are increasingly becoming scarce requiring more expensive equipment to locate deeper buried ore deposits. This has led to gigantic environmental degradation due to the use of heavy sophisticated earth moving machines. For instance, when Konkola copper Mines (KCM) took over from Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) on the copperbelt, Chingola and Chililabombwe in particular. After a while later, the production scale was upgraded and this created employment opportunities for over three thousand individuals who were unemployed, (MoFNP, 2006). Other benefits included improved infrastructure such as roads and schools as well as better health services. According to economists and development planners this was considered as national development because the lives of people were improved. However, the view of economists and development planners contradict with that of environmentalists because an elevation in the production scale of any industry is problematic as far as environmental sustainability is concerned because of unsustainable production strategies that hamper a good quality of life, (ECZ, 2011). According to ECZ (2008) mining activities especially large-scale open pit mining has negatively affected the environment resulting into environmental degradation. Among the prominent open pit mines are Nchanga, Kansanshi and Maamba collieries. Despite development enhanced by these mines, industrial operations of these sites have caused the contamination of terrestrial ecosystems mostly ascribed to dust fall-out and this has been a draw back as far as the maintenance of biological resources diversity and productivity are concerned. Kafue River on the copperbelt was polluted by Konkola copper Mines Plc due to toxic substances which were discharged into the water body. This occurrence negatively affected marine ecosystems which resulted in a depletion of certain species. Water resources have been affected by climate change and other factors such as increase in population growth, industry and agriculture which are induced by development. Unfortunately, there has been no corresponding expansion of sewerage infrastructure and solid waste disposal facilities and most of them are in a poor state, despite the increasing rate of development and this actually curbs sustainability. However, it must be realized that only after the last tree has been cut, only after the last river has been poisoned, only after the last fish has been caught only then will it be discovered that money cannot be eaten, (ECZ, 2008). Human sustainability has also been affected due to the side effects of development which have made the environment unsafe to support a good quality of life. The rate at which development is happening has put so much pressure on the environment and this has resulted into various environmental issues such as air pollution, water pollution, land pollution and ozone layer depletion among others. Environmentalists have identified that increasing industrial operations in Zambia have negatively influenced life expectancy and infant mortality rate. For example, adult survivorship levels have been declining in the last twenty years following rapid development trends. Life expectancy for females dropped from 46 years in 1980 to 44 years and 29 years in 2000. In the same category for males it was 44 years in 1980, 42 years in 1990 and 23 years in 2000. Diseases associated with environmental degradation include malaria, tuberculosis, asthma, bronchitis and dysentery among others and these so far have claimed quite a considerable number of lives, (MoFNP, 2006). In conclusion, it can be said that development and sustainability are two ends of the same continuum. Whichever example of development one might think of such as industrialization and housing, they are unsustainable, unless that development is related to green technologies or meant to counter the adverse effectives of development. In the end, the solution is a compromise because people need sustainability but cannot progress without development, hence, sustainable development. We can have development as long as we put measures in place to minimise environment damage. These measures include environmental impact assessments, environmental audits and strategic environmental assessments among others, hereafter ensuring sustainability. REFERENCES Arend. H and Eureta. J (2002). Environmental Encyclopaedia: South Africa: Eco-Logic Publication. ECZ (2000). The State of the Environment in Zambia. Lusaka: Environmental Council of Zambia. ECZ (2008). Zambia Environment Outlook Report 3. Lusaka: Environmental Council of Zambia. ECZ (2011). The Enviroline; ECZ Magazine Issue No. 33, January-April 2011. Lusaka: Environmental Council of Zambia. Energy Regulation Board, (2007). Energy Regulations Board: Energy Sector Report-2006. Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources (2007). National Policy On The Environment. Lusaka: MTENR. Ministry of Finance and National Planning (2006). Economic Report. Lusaka: Zambia. Todaro M.P and Smith S.C (2003). Economic development.8th edition.New Delhi, Pearson Publication.

Air pollution in Kawempe Division of Kampala, Uganda

Air pollution in Kawempe Division of Kampala, Uganda Hazard Word pictureIntroductionThe wellness effects of air pollution have been widely documented and assessed largely in North America and Europe, nevertheless air pollution in low- and middle-income states poses a great public wellness load that has non been decently assessed ( 1–6 ) . All right particulate affair comprised of atoms of width 2.5?g or less ( PM2.5) has been associated with mortality due to the development of cardiovascular or respiratory diseases and lung malignant neoplastic disease ( 3 ) . In the Kawempe Division in Kampala ( Uganda ) measurings of PM2.5from December 2013 and January 2014 were found to be above guideline bounds of the World Health Organization ( WHO ) bespeaking the demand for a consistent exposure appraisal of the air pollution and its wellness load in Uganda ( 7,8 ) .Hazard IdentificationAcute events of smog in the Meuse vale in Belgium and in London in 1933 and 1952, severally were among the first events that indicated the association between air pollution and mortality ( 9,10 ) . More late epidemiologic surveies quantified effects of chronic and ague exposures to poisons such as particulate affair, ozone, or benzine on wellness ( 3,11,12 ) . More specifically PM2.5exposure have been associated with inauspicious wellness results in big epidemiologic surveies in assorted scenes ( 8,13 ) . Chronic effects of exposure to particulate affair have been studied in prospective cohort surveies with big sample sizes and long follow-up periods in assorted locations such as the US, Canada, in Europe and China ( 2,4,5 ) . The first survey that associated cardiorespiratory and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality with PM2.5was published in 1993 by Dockery et Al ( 3 ) . In this first appraisal informations from six metropoliss with changing degrees of air pollution and mortality from cardiorespiratory diseases, lung malignant neoplastic disease, all causes of mortality and mortality from all other causes except cardiorespiratory diseases or lung malignant neoplastic disease was investigated. Following up to the â€Å"six metropoliss study† Laden et Al. in 2006 reported on the association between cardiovascular diseases ( CVD ) mortality, lung malignant neoplastic disease and respiratory upsets ( 14 ) . Following up the same cohort and reanalyzing the information Lepeu le et Al. in 2012 besides confirmed the association between CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality with PM2.5exposures ( 15 ) . In 2002, Pope et Al. besides reported the consequences of a larger cohort with PM2.5measurings of 51 metropolitan countries in the US, reasoning besides that there is increased hazard of mortality at 4 % , 6 % and 8 % from all causes, CVD, and lung malignant neoplastic disease, severally with each 10?g/m3addition in PM2.5( 4 ) . Similar consequences were besides reported in the Canadian survey of Crouse et al. , 2012 in a cohort of 2.1 million Canadian grownups ( 16 ) . All these surveies set the scene for comprehensive wellness hazard appraisal of PM2.5. They provided cohesive and timely consequences from dependable beginnings on the fluctuations PM2.5and mortality fulfilling Hill’s standards.Exposure AppraisalKampala, the capital of Uganda has a population of about 1,500,000, it is the 2neodymiummost thickly settled territory in the state ( 17 ) . The Kawempe division of Kampala is located in the North of the metropolis and has a population of 338,312, with an estimated 84,240 above the age of 30 old ages ( 17 ) . Measurement of ambient PM2.5degrees took topographic point two yearss during winter 2012-2013 in the country of Mperewre of the Kawempe Division and they were reported as portion on a pilot survey published in 2014 ( 7 ) . The mean Autopsy2.5concentration for the topographic point measurings was 104.3?g/m3. It besides exceeds both the one-year and 24-hour WHO guideline values that are set at 10?g/m3and 25?g/m3, severally, and antecedently reported measurings in developed states ( 8 ) . The mensural PM2.5degrees are nevertheless consistent with measurings in other developing states. Datas from Asiatic metropoliss suggest that the high Autopsy2.5concentrations are non rare in developing scenes where monitoring is non routinely conducted. Harmonizing to the 2010 study of the Health Effects Institute on outdoor air pollution in the underdeveloped states of Asia the degrees of PM2.5can be every bit high as 150?g/m3( 6 ) . In the same study, for illustration, in Shenzhen and Guengzhou, in China, 24-hour mean summer concentrations of PM2.5were 35?g/m3Autopsy2.5was every bit high as 97.5?g/m3. Exposure appraisal of PM2.5effects on mortality in the Kawempe Division are hindered by the deficiency of one-year norm values that would reflect fluctuations in air pollution. However given the features of the country, where a landfill is located and the tendency for increased urbanisation in Uganda and its deductions ( i.e. increased traffic etc ) the high Autopsy2.5degrees in Mperewre may reflect the norm of PM2.5degrees in the location ( 18,19 ) . Within the range of the present exposure appraisal we are based on the premise that the mean of the available topographic point measurings reflects the average PM2.5degrees in the Kawempe division of Kampala. Based on the handiness of information we can non be certain about the PM2.5concentrations fluctuate in the country over clip and the derived decision might be over- or undervaluing the existent wellness effects of PM2.5wellness effects. Table 1 Autopsy2.5concentrations and meteoric parametric quantities on the yearss that measurement took topographic point harmonizing to Schwander et al. , 2014.December 31, 2012January 2, 2013Autopsy2.5 ­concentrations (?g/m ­3 ­)104.9103.7Average concentration (?g/m ­3 ­)104.3Meteorologic parametric quantitiesAverage temperature (0C ) [ min, soap ] 22.2 [ 18.9, 25.0 ]24.4 [ 20.6, 27.8 ]Dew point temperature (0C )18.920.0Mean wind velocity ( kilometers per hour ) [ max ] 8.1 [ 16.1 ]8.1 [ 19.3 ]Exposure-Response AnalysisThe exposure-response relationships between PM2.5and mortality from CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease have been antecedently studied in US populations by Laden et Al. ( six metropoliss study, follow-up ) and by Pope et Al. ( 4,14,22 ) . In the survey of Laden CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease deceases were associated with exposure to PM2.5( 14 ) . Specifically a 10?g/m3addition in the mean Autopsy2.5was associated with comparative hazard ( RR ) of 1.28 ( 1.13-1.44, 95 % CI ) for CDV mortality and a RR of 1.27 ( 0.96-1.69, 95 % CI ) for lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality. In the survey of Pope et al. , 2002 for the same PM2.5incremental alteration addition in lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality was estimated at 8 % ( 4 ) . Both surveies, the 1993 survey of the six metropoliss and the Lepeule’s follow up have established the association between increased exposure to PM2.5and increased hazard for C VD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality. The form of the exposure-response map nevertheless is non additive in all doses nor does it hold the same form for both results. The exposure-response map of mortality from CVD starts steep in low exposures and going flatter with increasing concentrations ( 22 ) . In the instance of lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality the exposure-response map is more additive and it is, as expected, more influenced by confounders ( i.e. smoke ) ( 22 ) . Additionally in all the aforesaid surveies the exposure-response maps have been established based on the effects of low exposures, normally below 50?g/m3. In Uganda, the age-adjusted mortality rate from lung malignant neoplastic disease is 2.7 among males and 2.4 among females ( per 100,000 ) while the same index for CVD is 276.7 and 250.7 per 100,000 population ( males and females, severally ) ( 20,21 ) . In order to gauge the figure of CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease deceases attributed to 104?g/m3of ( assumed ) one-year exposure we will be based on the exposure-response maps for CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality developed by Pope et Al, 2011 that were derived from a prospective cohort of 1.2 million grownups ( & gt ; 30 old ages old ) and old surveies in the US which accounted for assorted confounders of exposure. They estimated the RR associated with different degrees of PM2.5exposure accounting for ambient air pollution, active coffin nail smoke and secondhand smoke to gauge the day-to-day norm inhaled dosage of PM2.5. The RR for each of the two results ( CVD and lung malignant neoplastic disease mortality ) was so calculated with the power map: RR=1+? ( dosage )?which corresponds to a nonlinear monotone map for which at zero dose the RR is equal to 1. Table 2 Exposure appraisal informationPopulation features( 17 )MalesFemalesEntireKawempe Division159,800178,512338,312Population above 30 old ages old ( 24.9 % * )39,79044,44984,240Kampala722,638793,5721,516,210Entire population16,935,45617,921,35734,856,813Age standardized decease rates per 100000( 20,21 )Cardiovascular diseases276.7250.7Lung malignant neoplastic disease2.72.4Entire figure of deceases in Kawempe territory for the those & gt ; 30 old ages oldCardiovascular diseases110111222Lung malignant neoplastic disease112RR estimations for both genders ( for dosage of PM2.5104?g/m3)Attributable hazard fractionNumber of instances attributed to PM2.5Cardiovascular diseasesRR=1+0.2685 ( dosage )0.27301.950.49108Lung malignant neoplastic diseaseRR=1+0.3195 ( dosage )0.743311.090.912Hazard Word pictureWith an estimated RR of 1.95 for CVD mortality due to PM2.5degrees of 104?g/m3the PM2.5-associated mortality instances in the entire population above 30 old ages old of Kawempe Division is about 108 ( Table 2 ) . The age standardized mortality rate for CVD – the primary wellness result that has been associated with increased air pollution – in Uganda is comparatively high contrary and future research is needed to decently gauge the fraction of instances attributed to air pollution which was comparatively high in this study ( 0.49, ( Table 2 ) . As expected given the to the low mortality rate of lung malignant neoplastic disease in the country and the fact it is confounded by other factors that could non be assessed in ( i.e. smoking ) we can non properly measure the impact of PM2.5on the figure of lung malignant neoplastic disease deceases in Kawempe Division. For the present analysis the informations used were compiled from assorted beginnings. Population estimations were taken from the probationary study on the 2014 nose count. Lung malignant neoplastic disease and CVD age standardized mortality rates were taken from GLOBOCAN and the WHO, severally. Therefore all computations are based on the premise that for the 2014 of Kawempe Division the mortality rates are the same as the last reported in the aforesaid beginnings. The fact that there is the information might non reflect the decently the features of the population is an of import restriction of this appraisal. Along with the fact that hazard estimations were based on surveies of lower Autopsy2.5degrees. Future research needs to be based on seasonably collected information and hazard theoretical accounts that account for the high exposures. Mentions 1. Katsouyanni K, Rimm EB, Gnardellis C, Trichopoulos D, Polychronopoulos E, Trichopoulou A. Reproducibility and comparative cogency of an extended semi-quantitative nutrient frequence questionnaire utilizing dietetic records and biochemical markers among Grecian school teachers. Int J Epidemiol. 1997 Jan 1 ; 26 ( suppl 1 ) : S118. 2. Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Beelen R, Samoli E, Stafoggia M, Weinmayr G, et Al. 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Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality Associated with Ambient Air Pollution and Cigarette Smoke: Shape of the Exposure–Response Relationships. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011 Jul 19 ; 119 ( 11 ) :1616–21. Appendix – Analytica theoretical account File: Xanthi_Andrianou_RA_W4_Risk_characterization